1. Introduction
India is an ancient civilization composed of various, complex
cultural strands. It has given rise to several religions, which are active and
alive, and co-exist with each other, and influence the life patterns of people,
not only in India, but also in different continents of the world. India, at the
same time, is a place of contradictions. The disparity between the rich and
poor is scandalous. The conflicts and violence in the name of religion,
language, ethnicity and culture inflict pain on the civilization which is God
fearing, hospitable and pluralistic in its essence. Hence, India has both the
role of enriching humanity with its vast experience of living with diversity of
cultures as well as that of learning from the wealth of experience of other
cultures. All these offer opportunities and challenges for the evangelization
of cultures and the inculturation of the Christian faith in India. This paper
tries to understand the diversities of Indian cultures and their implication
for inculturation, evangelization and intercultural dialogue. Since these are
an important area of the life of the Church in India, we need more scientific
research into the cultures of India as well as into the interaction between the
Gospel and cultures.
2. India: A Land of Diversity of Cultures
(a) Ancient Heritage India is a land not only with a rich and
ancient heritage but also with an ancient history, comparable with that of
China, going back to 3,000 B.C. or earlier. The Harappa civilization, the first
known civilization of India, stood alongside the Egyptian and Mesopotamian
civilizations as one of the early, advanced civilizations of humankind. They
belonged to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Although historically later
than the civilizations of the Nile and
the Twin Rivers (Euphrates and Tigris), the Indus civilization was spread over
a wider area of 1,000 square miles and maintained links with Mesopotamia, both
by land and by sea.[1]
India also has the distinction of being one of the few countries of the world,
along with China, to have a continuous tradition from ancient periods. This
tradition, however, does not represent one culture and one people. It is more a
reflection of the diverse cultures that have co-existed and then synthesized
over a period of time, with different strands, sometimes meeting, sometimes
conflicting, sometimes merging, but continuously co-existing.[2]
(b) Cultural Diversity India is a subcontinent with a vast
population of the most diverse levels of culture. Anthropological knowledge of
the people of India reveals that almost all known racial groups have migrated
to India at different times in the past with their own language, religion and
culture. The cultural inputs and influences from the ancient tribes of India,
the urban-centred Indus Valley people, and the whole galaxy of subsequent
arrivals — Sanskrit speaking people, the so-called Aryans (pastoral nomadic,
horse-riding) — laid the foundation for the cultures of India. Since there was
plenty of space, the migrating cultural and racial groups could pass on and
penetrate further into the interior without much opposition. Thus, the various
cultural groups did not destroy each other, but continued to live on and
consolidate into the main components of the present-day population.[3] The
caste system also helped to keep the diverse racial, social and cultural groups
apart, for it effectively prevented them from mixing with one another. Later,
other cultural influences were brought to India by the Greeks, Scythians,
Parthians, Shakas and Huns before the eighth century, as well as by Arabs,
Persians, Turks, Afghans and Mongols between the eighth and twelfth centuries —
who were part of the vital and living process of many migrations into India
since time immemorial.
Thus the population of India is very heterogeneous. Variety and
diversity permeate the whole subcontinent, every State and district, every town
and village. Indian civilization is the outcome of a confluence of various
cultural, religious, linguistic and ethnic traditions. Over the years of mutual
fecundation, synthesis and challenge, Indian civilization has come to be
characterized by a diversity of cultures, religions, languages, races and caste
groups.
3. Diversity under Challenge
(a) Misconception of India as a Monolithic Culture Having said that
India has something beautiful to offer the world, especially its long
experience of living with diversity, we need also to look at today’s situation
with caution. Although India stands out among the comity of nations in the
world as a model of unity in diversity, nevertheless it is a unity which is
seriously threatened by economic disparities, religious fundamentalism and
ethnic conflicts. There are cultural movements which try to depict India as a
mono-cultural entity. These ideological groups have been depicting Christians,
Muslims, Parsis and some others as foreigners in their own native land. There
has been communal violence in the name of culture, religion and ethnicity.
Today, the interesting debate in India is on its cultural identity.[4]
According to Hindu nationalists the Hindu religion and culture form
the basis of the political identity of India. They identify India with a
monolithic Sanskritic culture. They call their movement Cultural Nationalism.
Anybody who does not subscribe to this vision is considered an enemy of the
nation. This idea of Hindutva implies that to be Indian is to be Hindu.
According to them to be an Indian is defined by religion. An analysis of the
attacks on Christians in India would show that one of the reasons is related to
the ideology of Hindutva.[5] Dayananda
Saraswati (1824-1883) urged a regeneration of Hindus through adherence to a
purified “Vedic faith”. He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. Its favourite mottos
are “Back to the Vedas” and “Aryavarta for the Aryans”. This view simply
equates Indian culture with Brahmanic Hinduism and Sanskritic culture, all
non-Hindu aspects being regarded as contaminating influences. The Vedic Aryans
are described by Dayananda as a primordial and elect people to whom the Veda
has been revealed and whose language, Sanskrit, is said to be the “Mother of
all languages”. They would have migrated at the beginning of the world from
Tibet — the first land to emerge from the Oceans — towards the Aryavarta. This
territory, homeland of the Vedic civilization, covered the Punjab, Doab and
Ganges basin. From this position, the Aryans would have dominated the whole
world till the war of the Mahabharata, a watershed opening a phase of decadence.
The national renaissance implied, for Dayananda, a return to the Vedic Golden
Age.
(b) Indological and Orientalist Foundational Misunderstanding of
India There are several approaches to the understanding of Indian society. The
approach one chooses influences one’s methodology on the Christian mission.
There is a debate on what constitutes ‘Indian Culture’ and ‘Indian Identity’.
Anthropological writing on India over more than fifty years provides some key reference
points for this debate.[6] The
19th and 20th century Indological approach developed by the
orientalists and colonial administrators perceived the Sanskritic culture as
the mainline culture of India. It gave identity to Indian-ness. Today, with the
increasing anthropological knowledge of India, there are movements challenging
the idea of a homogenous Indian-ness. Despite the power and influence of
‘Indology’, with its reliance on classical texts and high culture, the bulk of
the work of anthropologists and sociologists after Independence has been towards
empirical documentation of the enormous diversities in the society and culture
of India. There are two major axes along which issues of cultural identity now
appear: the idealized homogeneous notion of Indian culture and the contrasting
notion which conceptualizes Indian ‘culture’ as plural. These two axes and
their ramifications are currently at the heart of debates on culture and
identity.[7] The
missiological approach to inculturation and mission in India has been largely
from an Indological perspective. With the increasing anthropological knowledge
of the pluralistic nature of Indian identity, the Tribals and Dalits are
asserting their cultural identity in the India of the 21st century. This has
missiological implications for the Church.
(c) Current Anthropological Understanding of India Earlier ideas of
the origin of India in the Aryan-speaking people now stand corrected. These
ideas were initially put forward by the leading Indologist Max Muller, who had
spoken of (i) the Aryan origin of India, and (ii) the Aryan people as a racial
group. It was largely due to the authority of Max Muller that these ideas were
easily accepted and popularized as the truth, though later scientific findings
have denied it as fact.[8]
Orientalism, as Inden (1990), Trautmann (1997) and Thapar (1997) point out,
includes both the knowledge produced by European scholars and the European
representation of the Orient. The work of an entire body of Indological
scholars and administrators came together in the construction of the racial
understanding of Indian civilization that became established in the Aryan
theory. The idea is also being put forth and popularly accepted today, that the
cultural and religious identity of India is traced back solely to an Aryan
origin. These scholars included William Jones, H.H. Wilson, Henry Colebrooke,
Charles Grant, James Mill, Max Muller and others, who interacted to form
certain patterns. As Thapar elucidates, even the discovery of the pre-Vedic
Indus Valley Civilization did little to dislodge the Aryan theory. Rather,
various elaborate efforts were made to contain the Indus Valley Civilization
within the confines of the myth of the Aryan race.[9] The
people of the Indus Valley Civilization were sometimes treated as non-Aryans
who were conquered (as were the Dravidians) by the Aryans. Otherwise, attempts
were made to redefine the Indus Valley Civilization as an Aryan civilization.
One of the ramifications of the orientalist understanding is the
definition of India as “Hindu” India and the idea that a central position has
to be accorded to caste as the most important social and cultural marker. One
might trace here the marginalization of the study of other communities and their
cultures.[10]
The orientalist and indologist understanding of India is shown today to be
fallacious, by the recent scientific findings of paleontology, archaeology and
linguistics. Archaeological evidence,
supported by linguistic paleontology and other modern sciences, reveal the
multi-cultural history of India.
4. Indian Diversity and Its Implications for the Church in India
(a) Importance of Scientific Research in Inculturation and
Evangelization of Cultures For the last several decades the Indian Church has
been actively involved in the process of inculturation. Immediately after
Vatican II there were vigorous attempts in the form of research seminars,
publications, and practical workshops towards inculturation. This enthusiasm
seems to be weakening day by day and there is not much progress towards such
inculturation. Historically, we know that many missionary movements have
originated not from theories but from the missionaries’ struggles and their
search for authentic Christian life. When we examine the reasons for this lack
of interest in inculturation we propose the following as one of the possible
causes. The Indian Church is made up of a large number of Tribal, Dalits and
people from non-Brahmanic castes.
But the earlier attempts at inculturation were mainly made from the
upper caste (Sanskritic) perspective. This approach to inculturation was a
result of the understanding of India mainly from the indological perspective
and a direct follow-up of the colonial orientalist perspective. Today,
anthropological research shows that the field reality is very different from
the text-oriented indological and orientalists view.[11]
Moreover, there is a power shift in the self-understanding of
India’s cultural reality. For the last three thousand years the Brahmins and
other upper castes had defined the identity of Indian culture. With the coming
of democracy and each individual’s right to vote to elect his/her
representatives, the power is slowly shifting to middle, lower, Dalit castes
and Tribal. All these affect the very self-understanding of the culture and
identity of India.[12] Hence,
any attempt towards inculturation must take into account the field reality and
thechanging self-perception of the different segments of the Indian population.
(b) Inculturation - Call for a Prophetic Role
Through the process of inculturation, the Church inserts itself in
the culture of a people. It integrates the Christian life and its message into
a given culture. It involves itself in the life-realities of the people by
participating in their historical struggle for meaning and emancipation. It is
very important for the local Church to play a creative role in this process of
inculturation in the midst of constant change. The emerging culture of India is
greatly influenced by globalization, the mass media and internet, and these are
providing opportunities as well as challenges to traditional Indian cultures
and values. A growing secularization and materialism are silently undermining
the values and principles of India’s traditional cultures. In the process of
inculturation, local Christians play a vital role in giving direction to
cultural change through their selective assimilation and cultural continuity.
The symbol-creativity of a people and their search for meaning are manifested
in the changing cultural scenario without alienating themselves from their
cultural roots[13]
The inherent nature of inculturation has two important dimensions. One, is the
celebration of cultures for their life-giving values and the second, is the
transformation of (challenge to) values which are life-negating.[14]
The cultural nationalist forces are increasingly seeking to
homogenize the cultures of India towards an upper caste, Sanskritic, Brahmanic
culture. Anything outside of this cultural orbit is denied legitimate existence
in Indian society. The Hindu fundamentalist organizations claim that the
Tribals and untouchables (Dalits) are backward Hindus. But the Tribals and
Dalits reject this super-imposed identity. They are struggling for their
survival, human dignity and cultural identity. The visionaries from the
suppressed masses like Jotirao Phule, E.V.R. Periyar and Dr Ambedkar battled
for a true humanism and for the equal dignity of all by a vigorous critique of
Brahmanic culture and its perpetuation of caste-based discrimination.[15]
Conversion movements have been one of the means by which peoples have moved up
the social ladder. A large number of Dalits and Tribals have converted to
Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam and Christianity.[16] More
than 70 per cent of Indian Christians today are from these lower layers of
Indian society.
This socio-cultural and political reality has also to be taken
seriously in the process of inculturation. While the mystical and interiority
traditions of Hinduism are very important in inculturation, at the same time
Christians need to view them critically and assimilate them selectively.[17] This
is because the credibility of the contemplative values of Buddhism, Jainism and
especially Hinduism need to be tested in the light of the Indian social reality
of grinding poverty and its vast system of legitimized social oppression. The
Hindu religious world-view is not able to give the minimum human dignity to the
vast majority of its people. Millions of people do not even have the minimal
resources for their survival. At the same time, there are people who enjoy all
the privileges and comforts of life. The Tribals, untouchables (Dalits) and
other Backward Caste communities who for a long time have been treated with
contempt and oppression are struggling to get the bare necessities. The
impression of India as a paradise of religion is deceptive in the context of
its grinding poverty and its vast system of legitimized social oppression.
Inculturation must also imply a prophetic role by challenging (transforming)
the oppressive cultural values in Hindu traditions. The relevance of Jesus lies
precisely in the context of the social concern in the reconstruction of modern
India
The Christian commitment to equality, fraternity and dignity by
abolishing poverty, ignorance, injustice, and other forms of deprivation calls
for deeper and varying methods of inculturation. The recognition and
empowerment of Tribal and Dalit and other ethnic communities’ cultures are also
very important. Inculturation must pay attention to this pluralistic cultural
reality of India. The values and the world-views of indigenous peoples
(Tribals) are particularly significant. Their sense of community, solidarity,
rejection of greed and eco-friendliness embody a humanism that is holistic and
life-giving. Christians can treasure such humanism as a precious gift from God,
and integrate it with the Good News of salvation.
(c) Dynamic Nature of Culture and Inculturation
The process of inculturation must take account of the dynamic
nature of culture. Culture is never a finished product. All cultures are dynamic,
adapting themselves to ever new situations. India cannot isolate itself. In
modern times, the world has been transformed by information technologies into
what we call the global village. We see two important cultural processes now
taking place simultaneously. On the one hand, due to the increase of
communication systems, cultures are exposed to one another, and there is a kind
of universal culture in the making. On the other hand, increasing nationalistic
tendencies seize every opportunity to mobilize their people in their unique and
specific cultural identities and heritage. Inculturation takes place in this
context of universal and particular cultural realities. Since Christianity is
universally present with specific cultural identities, the inculturation
process must include universal Christian symbols and rituals to express its
universal faith, morals and celebrations, as well as particular cultural
expressions in theologically acceptable symbols, rituals and celebrations.
Hence, inculturation is both universal and particular. That is why the interaction
between Gospel and culture is a process of inter-culturation.
(d) Inculturation and Inter-culturation
It is also very important to understand that inculturation is a
process of inter-culturation. The Gospel itself came to a culture with
previously acquired particular cultural expressions. This implies that
inculturation is more than Hinduization; it is the Gospel interacting with
Indian cultures. As a result, the Indian cultures are enriched and the Gospel
finds a better expression of its values within Indian cultures. The cultures of
India are not extrinsic to Indian Christians. Indian Christians are insiders
to, and inheritors of, their cultures. Christians bring the treasures of their
cultures to their faith and become believers rooted in their soil. In Indian
religions and cultures, there is an emphasis on respect for all life,
compassion, and hospitality. The universal solidarity of all peoples or
Vasudhaiva kutumbakam (“the whole earth as a family”) is a tradition that is
being retrieved by people’s movements and dialogue initiatives of India.[18] Such
humanism needs to be reaffirmed in the context of narrow cultural nationalism,
regionalism and communalism. The Gospel-culture interaction should shine forth
as a light within us. The evangelization of culture is a continuous process. To
be evangelized and to evangelize go together. In our zeal to evangelize others,
we need to be ready to be evangelized by others. The humanism of the Gospel
should be at the heart of evangelization while it celebrates and challenges
cultures to conversion (transformation). It helps to detect a divine presence
in cultures and religions that opens the way to dialogue and collaboration so
as to build a just, humane and peaceful society. Inculturation is also
inter-cultural dialogue.
5. Mission as Inculturation
The idea of divine mission is not completely foreign to
non-Christian religions. The idea of mission has different structures. It
implies a positive call of God explicitly manifest in each particular case. In
the general sense, mission refers to the sending of somebody to do something on
behalf of the sender. In the Catholic usage, the word has a three-fold
dimension. In the first place it is used for the redemptive task of Jesus and
the Church in the world. In the second place, it refers to the
official designation of individuals or congregation to carry the good news and
saving presence of Christ and his Church beyond the boundaries of
the present membership. The third refer to an intensified period of
preaching and pastoral activity among those already members as in, parish
missions.‟[19]
According to the New Dictionary of Theology, mission in its
broadest sense, “is everything that the Church does in service of the kingdom
of God. In the more restricted sense, it refers to „missionary activity,” the
preaching of the gospel to peoples and cultures where it is not known. One of
the important historical lessons which all bearers of the Christian message
have come to learn is that the Gospel needs to be presented in a way which
respects the mentality, customs, and traditions of the people to whom it
is brought. If the word “Inculturation‟ has had a particular importance in
modern times, the principle of respecting cultural forms is as old as Paul’s
famous discourse with the Athenians at the Aereopagus in Acts of the Apostles
(17:23-34). To this end, the Christian missionaries should not force people to
change their customs as long as these are not opposed to religion or morality.
What is important is to bring the faith of the message of Christ to the
people one is sent to, and not one’s country’s ideology or culture.
The basic question of this discussion is to investigate the
importance of inculturation and its relevance to mission. Inculturation is one
of the patterns in which the pluriform character of contemporary
Christianity manifests itself. The Christian faith never exists except as
translated into a culture. In other words, the church is called to be the bearer
of culture. However, it is important to state here that inculturation does not
necessarily mean the same to everybody. Inculturation differs from all other
models of mission like accommodation, indigenization and
acculturation. Inculturation differs from these on these respects:
first of all, it differs in respect to agents.
In other models, it is usually the western missionaries that
dictate and supervised the way the encounter between the Christian faith and
local culture was to unfold. According to Luzbetak[20], “in
inculturation, however, the two primary agents are the Holy Spirit and the
local church (community) particularly the laity.” In the words of Geffre, “the
gospel must remain Good news while becoming up to a certain point, a cultural
phenomenon.”[21]
One thing very important is the fact that Inculturation is needed
both in proclaiming the Gospel and in instructing others about it. It should be
seen as an important link between the mystery of the Incarnation - Jesus,
Son of God becoming man-and the need to express the Gospel in terms which have
meaning in the particular culture being addressed. This is because every
culture needs to be evangelized.” It is important to state here that, this does
not imply an outward adaptation; rather, it is an intimate transformation
of authentic cultural values by their integration into Christianity and the
planting of Christianity in the different human cultures. Notwithstanding the
above, it is paramount that knowing, understanding and respecting cultures do
not mean approving everything in them. In the Encyclical letter of Pope John
Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, he insists that “the process of
(inculturation) is thus a profound and all -embracing one, which involves the
Christian message and also the Church’s reflection and practice.”
Inculturation has to be a permanent process and therefore all those engaged in
it have always to be open to the changes which are part of its vitality and a
reflection of the life of the society. It is important to state here that
inculturation can be linked with all the Christian mysteries: the Incarnation,
the Redemption, the Paschal Mystery and Pentecost. However, out of all of these
it seems to note a particular connection with the Incarnation. The Synod
Fathers, in fact, recalled John Paul II‟s definition of inculturation as being
„the process by which “catechesis ‘takes flesh’ in the various cultures”.‟
Finally, it must be linked to history and to a particular human
culture. By extension, the same must apply to the Incarnation and
inculturation. However, inculturation is an extension of the Incarnation. With
the latter we have the Divine directly and fully entering a particular cultural
context as a means of entering the context of all humanity. The former,
inculturation, which is a development from the Incarnation, is the process
whereby God enters one cultural context to another. The Incarnation was the
revelation of God as Trinity. This is what is specifically „new‟ about
Christianity and what distinguishes it not only from the traditional religions
of Africa but from all the other religions of the world. God as Trinity must
have a deep significance for inculturation and, in fact, must determine our
whole understanding of it.
6. Conclusion
India is an ancient country, whose history goes back at least five
thousand years. Historically it has never been a closed territory. It has lived
with various migrant populations and their cultures. The Indian experience of
living with diversity has an important lesson for the world and for the Indian
Church. Inculturation and the evangelization of cultures and inter-cultural
dialogue in India must take this cultural diversity very seriously. With the
past experience, we now understand that inculturation is a complex and constant
process of implanting the Christian faith in the cultural creativity of Indian
people.
1. Develop a deep spirituality of mysticism and interiority. Indian
cultures have been marked by a deep sense of the spiritual where God occupies a
central place.
2. Social involvement is needed in the reconstruction of modern
India with the values of equality, fraternity and social justice. As citizens
Christians should actively participate in politics and peoples’ movements which
promote human dignity and promotion of life.
3. Since language is the embodiment of culture, creating good and
valuable Christian literature in the regional and national languages and
dialects of India is a must. Indian Christians must be rooted in their mother
tongue, and they should be creative and knowledgable in their languages.
4. The Indian Church must recognize, appreciate, value and empower
the cultures of India and encourage the cultural creativity of Tribals, Dalits
and other ethnic communities.
5. There should be mutual interaction and respect between the local
Church and the universal Church in terms of expressing the Christian meaning
and life in the symbols and rituals of the liturgy and life. For example, as
the Greek letters Alpha and Omega do not fully express the mystery of the
Cross, similarly the Sanskritic Om is inadequate to signify the meaning of the
Cross. There are varied and contradictory meanings of the term “Om” in Hindu
traditions. If a theologically acceptable and agreeable consensus of the term
“Om” is arrived at among theologians and the Indian Christian community, then
“Om” could be used together with the “Cross” in an aesthetically appropriate
manner. But this requires much research, deep reflection and pastoral prudence.
Similarly, the use of the saffron shawl in the Latin Liturgy requires
re-examination.
6. The Christian community in India should actively celebrate
regional and national feasts and festivals which are compatible with the
Christian vision of life and promote peace and harmony among cultures and
ethnic communities.
7. The most important events in a culture are the rites of passage.
The Christian meaning of life can be well articulated without alienation from
the Indian context if Christians adopt the rites of passage and give them a
Christian interpretation and meaning.[22]
8. The Christians in India must live and actively promote our
cultural values of family, community, and respect for elders, modesty,
hospitality and other life-giving values.
9. We humans are both rational and emotional. The cultures we
create have these contents. Hence, the Christian faith should be expressed both
rationally and emotionally. The intellectual articulation of the Christian
faith in theology must be expressed emotionally in the Indian cultures through
well thought-out and theologically sound popular devotions, pilgrimages,
observance of fasts, processions, parish feasts, bhajan singing (chanting),
storytelling, passion plays, etc.[23]
To conclude I repeat that India is known for its diversity of
cultures and that they co-exist with mutual respect and recognition in spite of
recent efforts at homogenization. As Christians we need to learn from this
experience of cultural diversity. Though the roots of Christianity in India are
very ancient and deep, yet cultural integration still remains a task to be
done. The inculturation and evangelization of cultures are urgent needs. The
Christian cultural centres need to engage actively in research to reach a
deeper understanding of the cultural forces at work, and offer their services
for an effective, relevant and meaningful inculturation.
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[1]
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[2]
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Synthesis. Delhi: Rawat Publications 2007
[3]
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[4]
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India”, in Globalization and Social Movements. Struggle for a Human Society.
Eds. P.G. Jogdand and S.M. Michael, Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2003 pp. 78-107
[5]
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[6]
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Delhi: Sage Publications 2005
[7] Robinson,
Rowena: Christians of India. Delhi: Sage Publications 2003
[8] D’Souza,
Leela: Cultural History of Ancient India. Diversity, Syncretism, Synthesis.
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[9] Thapar, R.
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[10]
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[12]
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[14]
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[16]
Michael, S.M: “Inculturation in the Context of India”, In His Foot Steps.
Together Towards the New Millennium. Divine Word Missionaries 1875-2000. ed.
Clarence Srampical & others. Indore: Divine Word Missionaries.
[17] Michael, S.M:
“Cultural Performance as Christian Celebration’’, Indian Missiological Review,
12/1 (April 1990) pp. 6-18
[18] Vidyajyoti
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[19] Glazier Michael et al (eds.), The Modern
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[21]
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[23]
Michael, S.M: “Inculturation in the Context of India”, In His Foot Steps.
Together Towards the New Millennium. Divine Word Missionaries 1875-2000. ed.
Clarence Srampical & others. Indore: Divine Word Missionaries pg.166-172
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